Professional Legal Consciousness: An Ideal Theoretical Model or Legal Reality?

: The article analyzes and evaluates the type of legal consciousness, which in the domestic literature has been defined and is still defined as professional legal consciousness, which, according to the author, must meet the following requirements: it is enough to know the current legislation applied in practice, respectful attitude to law and how consequence, the ability to apply the law, making effective and legal decisions. Emphasizing that it would be illogical to reduce into one type of carriers of professional legal consciousness those officials who carry out their professional activities on the basis of the law, respecting the law, and those law enforcers who commit offenses and even crimes, while showing a negative attitude towards the law, the position is substantiated, according to which the analyzed type of legal consciousness is considered as an ideal theoretical model and defined as practical legal consciousness.


I. Introduction
It seems that the relevance of theoretical problems of legal consciousness cannot raise any doubts, because the latter, being a subjective prerequisite for one or another type of legal behavior (legal or unlawful), manifests itself from the point of view of various aspects of state legal reality: this (along with legal culture) is an element the work of the legal regulation mechanism, which creates a subjective environment for its functioning; it is a structural element (the dominant legal ideology) of the national legal system, etc.Not a single phenomenon, including law, can have an impact on social relations without first being reflected in legal consciousness.Legal awareness is a kind of filter through which factors influencing the law are passed.

II. Research Methods
1. general philosophical (dialectical-materialistic), which is used in all social sciences; 2. general scientific (analysis and synthesis, logical and historical, comparisons, abstractions, etc.), which are used not only by the theory of state and law, but also by other social sciences; 3. special methods (philological, cybernetic, psychological, etc.), developed by special sciences and widely used for the knowledge of state and legal phenomena; 4. private scientific (formal legal, interpretation of law, etc.), which are developed by the theory of state and law.
Legal awareness is a kind of "filter" through which various factors influencing the law are passed.At one time, Elena Andreevna Lukasheva emphasized that "legal consciousness, reflecting the objective conditions of social development, directs, regulates and coordinates the social practical activities of people, transforming in the course of this activity, filling with new content" [3].
Soviet theoreticians made a great contribution to the development of the theory of legal consciousness [3;4;5; 6].So, for example, Mark Filippovich Orzich once emphasized that "legal awareness... in the structure of the individual not only provides knowledge of legal reality, but acquires the role of a source of activity, human activity -an important factor of human individuality, in which all the possibilities and properties of a person are embodied and realized " [7].
Valery Aleksandrovich Shchegortsev, focusing on the sociological aspect of the study of legal consciousness, argued that "the expansion of the democratic foundations of the development ... of society, the increasing role of the subjective factor of social development, the further strengthening of the rule of law determine the need for an appropriate level of legal consciousness, and, consequently, a more detailed development of the problem by legal science legal consciousness: studying its structure and content, factors influencing it; consideration of the relationship between legal consciousness and other forms of social consciousness; research into the mechanism of influence of legal consciousness on people 's behavior, etc."[8].
Legal awareness necessarily presupposes a carrier (subject), the importance of which "... in any activity is difficult to overestimate: the achievement of results depends on him, therefore, problems associated with a lack of certain competence, overload, peculiarities of legal status, etc., directly affect efficiency implementation of law enforcement procedures" [9].
In solidarity with scientists, we believe that "the process of the influence of law on social relations is impossible without the active creative role of legal consciousness, since it is carried out through influencing the will and consciousness of the individual" [10].The need to increase the role of law in regulating social relations necessarily requires the formation in the public consciousness of an understanding of its social significance, a certain level of perception and respect for it by all members of society and individuals.As Konstantin Viktorovich Agranovsky believes, "state legal regulation needs to be understood in an anthropogenic, psychological dimension" [11].
However, despite the importance and significance of legal consciousness from the point of view of both legal theory and practice, there remain quite controversial and debatable issues regarding this legal phenomenon: this is its concept, the subject of reflection and structure [12], functions [13;14] and etc.Moreover, we believe that the modern theory of legal consciousness has a number of gaps in its study of not only individual particular aspects, but also general methodological ones.This concerns, in particular, the above-mentioned anthropogenic dimension of law and the problems of the legal subject as a bearer of a certain legal consciousness.In this regard, Sergei Nikolaevich Kasatkin argues that modern legal theory "...legal consciousness is considered primarily as a reflection of legal existence, one of the means of functioning of the reproduction of the system of law and legal order, as a result of which the connection of law by consciousness, the rootedness of law in the legal subject as an actor remains insufficiently developed capable of recognizing and affirming certain values" [15].

Professional legal awareness
In this study, we focus on one of the classifications of legal consciousness, which in the theory of law is carried out on the basis of such criteria as its level, the depth of reflection of state legal reality.
As is known, most researchers of the theory of law, from the perspective of this criterion, distinguish the following types: 1) ordinary legal consciousness, which is characteristic of the bulk of members of society, is formed on the basis of the everyday life of citizens in the field of legal regulation.People with this level of legal consciousness are characterized by knowledge of the general principles of law, here legal views are closely intertwined with moral ideas.This is the sense of justice that is not reducible to feelings, emotions, moods, etc.[3; 16], but has, in addition to the psychological, also a psychological side; the source of its formation is everyday experience [17]; 2)) professional legal consciousness, which develops during special training (for example, when studying at a law school), in the process of practical legal activity.Subjects of this level have specialized, detailed knowledge of the current legal consciousness, skills and abilities of its application; 3) scientific, theoretical legal consciousness, characteristic of researchers and scientists involved in the issues of legal regulation of public relations [18].
Generally agreeing with the proposed classification of legal consciousness, we note that the vast majority of legal scholars are supporters of identifying professional legal consciousness, focusing on certain aspects of it.Valery Nikolaevich Protasov and Natalia Valerievna Protasova believe that "professional legal consciousness is the group legal consciousness of people who have received a special legal education and are professionally engaged in legal activities.Professional legal consciousness is an official official legal consciousness" [19].
Although at one time officials of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation unreasonably attributed a high level of professional legal awareness to graduates of law schools.As you know, future law enforcement officers receive specialized legal education based on the so-called integrated approach, which undoubtedly has positive characteristics.Analysis of competencies in the past showed that a number of competencies caused their rejection.For example, one of the competencies was formed as follows: "realizes the social significance of his future profession, has a sufficient level of professional legal awareness (OK-1) [20].
Even students who have studied such an important, methodological legal science as the theory of state and law know well that professional (for now we will use this term -V.K.) legal consciousness consists of the views that develop among workers directly involved in legal activities and having legal knowledge and work experience (judges, lawyers, investigators, prosecutors, other civil servants, legal advisers, etc.) Professional legal awareness is formed on the basis of obtaining a legal education and legal practice [21].
Vladimir Ivanovich Chervonyuk clarifies that professional legal consciousness is an idea of the law that is formed among government officials (especially legal practitioners) on the basis of ideological ideology and special legal knowledge, and accumulating legal practice, experience in the application of law, a competent understanding of all aspects of its content [22].
In our opinion, graduates of law schools, even the best of them, have an ordinary legal consciousness, which is qualitatively different from the ordinary legal consciousness of citizens, but strives for a professional one, which is determined not only by subjective, but also by a number of objective factors.
Nina Lvovna Granat argued that "professional legal consciousness is the legal consciousness of lawyers" and "depending on the subject of reflection in the legal consciousness of a lawyer, areas are formed that correspond to different branches of legal relations (for example, economic, commercial, civil, criminal, criminal law).procedural, etc.)" [23].Timofey Nikolaevich Radko believes that professional legal consciousness is the legal consciousness of those citizens who have solid knowledge in the field of jurisprudence and are able to correctly apply this knowledge in legal practice, i.e. lawyers.Clarifying, the author writes that "professional legal awareness is necessary to a certain extent not only for lawyers, but also for those employees of various bodies and organizations who are associated with legal relations, legal documents (employees of personnel, social, commercial, etc. services) , because their decisions must be made on the basis and within the framework of the law (assignment of a pension, determination of penalties, conclusion of an agreement, etc.) [24].
When conducting scientific research, the following positions of scientists attract attention.Firstly, to the point of view of Valery Vasilyevich Lazarev and Sergei Vasilyevich Lipen, who, having characterized everyday (or empirical) and theoretical legal consciousness, then write that "... special attention is paid, as a rule, to the legal consciousness formed by specific legal practice, calling it professional legal consciousness."From the authors' point of view, "its peculiarity lies in a thorough knowledge of the legal norms governing this or that type of legal activity, certain legal procedures, this is the legal consciousness of practicing lawyers: judges, prosecutors, lawyers, legal advisers, etc." [25].
Secondly, on the position of Elizaveta Aleksandrovna Frolova, who first writes that "in theoretical and journalistic research, considerable attention is paid to assessments, areas of focus, motivations of the professional consciousness of lawyers associated with real behavior and their activities in the field of law"[1], and then discusses the reasons for violation of the law on their part (imperfection of the current legislation -55% of the surveyed legal practitioners; lack of the necessary professional experience -41; poor knowledge of the law by lawyers -36; pressure exerted by senior management -26%) [26].At the same time, the author emphasizes that "... mistakes (and there may be misdemeanors and even crimes -Vladimir Valentinovich Kozhevnikov) due to the incompetence, negligence or corruption of persons whose professional duty is the protection of human and civil rights are comparable to the mistakes of doctors, the price of which is life and human health"[1].

Practicing legal consciousness
It raises very serious doubts that almost all scientists, both Soviet and Russian, define this type of legal consciousness as professional.
The point is that by doing so we unreasonably admit that each subject of law enforcement is unreasonably considered as a bearer of professional legal consciousness.
Meanwhile, this is far from the case, although Sergei Ivanovich Ozhegov argued the opposite: "professional -related to any profession, associated with a profession" [27].Irina Mukhamedzhanovna Karelina believes that "a professional is a qualified person who sells the results of his work.Unlike a professional, an amateur is a person who does not have a standard level of professional qualifications" [28].
We believe that professional legal consciousness must meet the following requirements: a sufficiently good knowledge of the current legislation applied in practice, a respectful attitude towards the law [29] and, as a result, the ability to apply the law, making effective and legal decisions.In connection with the above, we believe that the statements of Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov are fully justified: "Establishing and ensuring law and order in accordance with the requirements of the rule of law is the most important system-forming factor for a professional legal group, as well as the procedural regulation of their daily activities.The purposeful work of lawyers, aimed at ensuring law and order, contributes to their cohesion as a social group and integrates their activities.And vice versa, lack of initiative, inertia, decreased demands and discipline can not only negatively affect the professional activities of individual lawyers or their teams, but even disorientate their specialized teams" [30].
We believe that it would be illogical to reduce into one type of carriers of professional legal consciousness those officials who carry out their professional activities on the basis of the law, respecting the law, and those law enforcement officers who commit offenses and even crimes, showing a negative attitude towards the law.The etymology of the word "species" (Latin species) is revealed in a logical sense as a concept that is formed by identifying common features in individual concepts [31].
That type of legal consciousness, which for quite a long time was defined by scientists in the past and is defined today as professional legal consciousness, should not be recognized as an existing legal reality.In our opinion, this is an ideal theoretical model, or, in other words, a legal structure.
Idealization is a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract (idealized) objects that are fundamentally impossible to implement in reality.These objects are not "pure fictions", but a very complex and very indirect expression of real processes.They represent some limiting cases of the latter, serve as a means of analyzing them and constructing theoretical ideas about them.
Representatives of general philosophy, turning to the methodology of scientific research, pay attention to the following provisions.
Firstly, the fact that the idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes.Having formed theoretical constructs with the help of idealization about this kind of objects, you can further operate with them in reasoning as with a really existing thing and build abstract diagrams of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.
Secondly, theoretical statements, as a rule, directly relate not to real, but to idealized objects, cognitive activity with which makes it possible to establish significant connections and patterns that are not available when studying real objects, taken in all the diversity of their empirical properties and relationships.
Thirdly, in the process of idealization there is an extreme abstraction from the real properties of the object with the simultaneous introduction into the content of the concepts being formed of features that are not realized in reality.As a result, a so-called "idealized object" is formed, with which theoretical thinking can be used to reflect real objects.
And finally, fourthly, as a result of idealization, a theoretical model is formed in which the characteristics and aspects of the cognizable object are not only abstracted from the actual empirical material, but also, through mental construction, appear in a more sharply and fully expressed form than in reality [32 ].
It is well known how much attention Dzhangir Abbasovich Kerimov paid to scientific abstractions in the process of cognition of legal phenomena and processes [33].Vyacheslav Nikolaevich Zhukov believes that in order to build theoretical knowledge, in addition to other methods, the method of idealization is important, which means presenting something in a more perfect form.Using the idealization method, a scientist creates a model of a real object endowed with perfect properties.The presence of such a model allows us to evaluate real objects and analyze trends in their positive or negative development (for example, an ideal rule of law state serves as a criterion for assessing a real state that is far from the model) [34].
Within the framework of methodological problems of legal science, Nikolai Nikolaevich Tarasov paid enough attention to the issues of legal constructions, who emphasized that "... the creation of scientific legal constructions must be considered within the framework of a complex cognitive process and is not enough to be identified with a simple reflection of a phenomenon in consciousness according to the principle of a direct mental image" [35 ] .The scientist believed that "before constructing a scientific model, it is necessary to conduct scientific research on selected properties, the formation of certain ideas and knowledge about these properties, i.e., what is sometimes called "pre-model development."Otherwise, we risk getting some representation of the object that is not in a model relationship with it, but, for example, in an illustrative one (layout)" [35].
On this occasion, at one time Nikolai Mikhailovich Korkunov wrote the following: "In order to expand generalizations and give them a reliable formulation, it is necessary to first subject the material that appears to us in observation to a certain processing.For this purpose, we subject our ideas to analysis, decomposing them into their component elements, in order to find common elements, from various combinations of which the whole variety of our ideas of a certain kind is made up.Then we combine the common elements of our ideas obtained through analysis consciously and in such a way as to require the goals of scientific research, thus constructing scientific concepts, which, as ideal constructions, are not simple copies of reality, but original constructions required for the purposes of science" [36].
It is interesting to note that even the authors who recognize the professional level of legal consciousness, which is distinguished by high stability, respect for the law, readiness to follow its instructions, presupposing the most complete legal awareness, an attitude towards active, creative lawful behavior, pay attention to its deformations, "...generated before total legal practice, including an accusatory bias, a certain formalism, the desire to act in accordance with the "letter" and not the "spirit" of the law, etc." [37].
It should be noted that in legal science there is no generally accepted definition of the deformation of professional legal consciousness.Thus, Nikolai Nikolaevich Voplenko proposes to consider the professional deformation of a lawyer as a kind of negative legal style of his thinking, attitude and behavior in practical activities [38].
The deformation of professional legal consciousness also refers to a change in the characteristics of an individual and his professional capabilities in an asocial direction, due both to the process of personality formation and to the peculiarities of the content, organization and conditions of his professional activity [39].
According to Pyotr Grigorievich Pivovarov, "the main reason for the deformation of professional legal consciousness is considered to be a deep value devaluation of law and legality..." [40].
Professional deformation, the danger of which lies not so much in itself, but in the attitude towards it.Knowledge of the phenomenon under consideration and, in connection with this, a critical attitude to the assessment of one's decisions and actions can warn practitioners from wrong actions.On the contrary, the lack of criticality, arrogance and complacency, forgetting that each legal case is individual, the manifestation of a sense of omniscience and hence one's infallibility can lead to an accusatory bias and lead to serious errors in the law enforcement process.Professional deformation is a negative socio-psychological phenomenon that appears in the form of various personal behavioral manifestations that have a destructive impact on the process and result of professional activity.This is a condition in which a person transfers images of a certain group of people to everyone, for example, a doctor begins to consider all people as sick, a warden as prisoners, an investigator as criminals (suspects).This is just one manifestation of professional deformation.
Professional deformation affects the reduction of empathy (from the word "empathy" as understanding the feelings of other people and the willingness to provide emotional support; this is the ability to put oneself in the place of another person (or object), the ability to empathize, the ability to perceive the inner world of another accurately while maintaining emotional and semantic shades) of personality traits -callousness appears, reluctance to take on someone else's pain, lack of mercy and humanity, reluctance and inability to understand another person; a reluctance to communicate appears, tactfulness decreases, rudeness appears; reduction of responsibility.For example, when committing a murder, the following question comes to the fore for internal affairs officers: was the act committed in conditions that were obvious or not obvious?
As Marat Iskhakovich Enikeev wrote, "the authority of the investigator can cause and consolidate such negative personal qualities as arrogance, arrogance, rudeness, and callousness.The constant subordination of the investigator's activities to procedural regulation can contribute to rigidity (i.e., the difficulty or impossibility of changing the program of activity in situations requiring its restructuring -Vladimir Valentinovich Kozhevnikov), inflexibility, adherence to template solutions, formalism; constant contact with asocial manifestations -to form stable suspicion, bias, and a tendency towards an accusatory bias in one's activities.Frequently occurring lack of time can lead to haste, superficiality, and neglect of individual procedural requirements.These possible manifestations of personal and professional deformation should be removed by the investigator's developed, stable self-control" [41].
At the same time, we emphasize that the professional deformation of law enforcement subjects of internal affairs bodies in various forms of its manifestation objectively causes not only negative legal, but also non-legal consequences, in particular, a low assessment by the population of the activities of the relevant law enforcement agencies.It concerns not only the legal aspects of professional consciousness, but also moral and psychological ones [42].
In particular, experts in the field of legal psychology Marina Davydovna Marinovskaya and Sergei Nikolaevich Tikhomirov are convinced that "the mutual influence of legal activity and individual characteristics of a person can lead to professional deformation."As the authors write, "in this case, the behavior of some lawyers is determined either by a sense of intellectual superiority, which is due to the fact that he knows something known only to him and inaccessible to "mere mortals," or by a sense of his own power, when he views himself as a person called upon to dispose "part of the universe", or firm attitudes towards "feeding", which have long historical roots in Russia" [43].
Venir Kalimulovich Samigullin, defining professional legal consciousness as "an element of professional culture; feelings, beliefs, traditions that develop in the process of special training and are constantly "fed" by legal practice, taken in all its complexity," especially emphasizes attention to professional deformation, which "can be expressed in overestimation by professionals (inquirers, investigators, prosecutors, lawyers, judges ), their knowledge, reducing self-criticism in relation to decisions made, neglecting the formal requirements of the law if they differ from their opinions..." [44].
In his monographic study, Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov notes that, "having its exceptional aspects due to specialization, the legal consciousness of lawyers for the same reason suffers from shortcomings...The one-sided influence of the professional experience of lawyers can lead to skeletal stereotypes, stereotyped assessments, a decrease in the emotional attitude to what is happening, disregard for unprofessional opinion There are also lawyers who are susceptible to formalism, bureaucracy, and sometimes they themselves take the path of violating the requirements of the law" [45].
The result of sociological research by Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov was a typology of lawyers, which is based on the legal consensus of lawyers in terms of the spirit and letter of the law, as well as their social activity in the field of law: 1) service worker -skillfully combines the spirit and letter of the law, but does not strive for any -changes in law and practice; 2) pragmatist -understands the spirit and letter of the law, but is interested primarily in the "passing" of the case and in this regard is guided by the opinion of those on whom the final resolution of the issue depends; 3) an enthusiast -skillfully combines the spirit and letter of the law, strives in the public interest to improve legislation and legal practice; 4) weather vane -allows deviations from the requirements of the law under pressure from superiors or local leaders; 5) a pedant -he is extremely strictly guided by the letter of the law, but sometimes sacrifices its spirit for the sake of observing the form; 6) antipedant -guided by the spirit of the law, but sometimes allows deviations from its letter; 7) careerist -inclined to sacrifice the law for the sake of promotion; 8) the bureaucrat is shielded by the law or allegedly "does not notice" the letter of the law, emasculates its spirit for the sake of his own convenience and peace of mind; 9) false lawyerviolates the law for personal gain, taking advantage of his official position [45].
The observations and conclusions of Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov date back to the second half of the 80s of the twentieth century, but they have not lost their significance in relation to our time.
In the context of this study, the arguments of Nina Lvovna Granat are very relevant, according to whom the formation of a specialist, in particular an investigator, goes through two stages: 1. during the first 5-7 years of work in the same service, in the same position or in the same specialty, the employee under normal conditions masters the profession and acquires qualifications; 2. after 7-10 years or longer, without changing the profile and nature of work, lack of immunity and effective prevention, undesirable changes in the consciousness and personality of the employee occur, which are commonly called "professional deformation".The author argued that the latter is an objective law, at least when solving mental problems in legally significant situations.Its effect increases or decreases depending on the situation and atmosphere in which professional activity and personality are realized.
Nina Lvovna Granat paid special attention to the fact that professional deformation necessarily causes undesirable changes in the presentation and assessment of the principles of legal and moral norms, their values and functions.At the general social, ideological level, such a deformation was called "legal nihilism."Moreover, the latter, according to the author, as a result of the socio-psychological deformation of professional and legal consciousness, is expressed in non-recognition of: 1) the priority of individual rights and freedoms; 2) rights and legality as the highest moral and political values; 3) derogation of their role and significance in the hierarchy of other preferences and priorities [46] Speaking about crime in law enforcement agencies, Igor Ivanovich Karpets noted that "... no less a tragedy for employees is that they are subject to the reverse influence of the criminal world itself.They see the evil of violent crime and they themselves become accustomed to the use of violence" [47].
Most of the sentences for corruption in Russian law enforcement agencies (672 out of 898) from January to September 2021 were handed down against police officers, Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation Igor Krasnov told RIA Novosti.According to him, over 9 months of this year, 8,946 criminal corruption cases against 9,948 persons were considered in courts with the participation of prosecutors.Convictions were made in 7,328 criminal cases against 8,088 persons, including 467 officials of state authorities and local self-government (executive power -171, executive power in the constituent entities -61, heads of municipalities and local administrations -130)."In addition, deputies of the subjects of the federation -7, deputies of local governments -43, law enforcement officials -898 (including internal affairs bodies -672, bailiffs -47, customs -30, investigation and inquiry -62 (IC -19 , Ministry of Internal Affairs -38), prosecutors -16, judges -9)," Krasnov said in an interview with RIA Novosti [48].Without citing any statistical data, the deputy head of the Federal Penitentiary Service, Valeria Maksimenko, noted that in recent years the country has begun to feel an acute shortage of areas for holding convicted security officials [49].
The above, it seems, does not allow us to call the analyzed level of legal consciousness as professional.According to Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov, we should talk about the practical level of legal consciousness, which "is associated with the experience of direct impact on real social life", "has greater clarity and organization, and is based on the experience of legal construction" [50].The author writes that "it is advisable in the structure of the legal consciousness of society, along with the scientific and everyday, to highlight another, intermediate level -the practical" [45].
In other works, Nikolai Yakovlevich Sokolov also focuses on the practical level of legal consciousness, the identification of which "is ultimately determined by the very nature of law, reflecting reality more directly than other subjective factors, and more directly oriented towards the implementation itself in it."The author, arguing, writes that "therefore, legal consciousness belongs to one of the most actively operating varieties of social consciousness, because in it the socio-practical side seems to prevail over the cognitive and evaluative functions" [51].
t seems that scientists assessing this level of legal consciousness are faced with a dilemma in terms of its name -professional legal consciousness or practical legal consciousness.Thus, it is argued that "the isolation of the practical level is especially justified in relation to the professional level of lawyers, since it is most closely related to the practice of legal construction, ensuring the regulatory impact of law on social relations" [51].
One should agree with the well-founded point of view of Dzhangir Abbasovich Kerimov, who saw one of the specifics of legal consciousness in the dialectical combination of three different types (levels) of consciousness: ordinary, direct (emotional), reflecting the legal relations of people in their everyday life; practical, based on experience of legal construction; scientific, related to the study of that range of phenomena, the knowledge of which is necessary to solve legal problems [52].

IV. Conclusion
In conclusion of this scientific article, the author of which opposes the allocation of professional legal consciousness for a long time by domestic legal science, we emphasize, and we would like to hope for this, that a well-founded conclusion about this fundamental position is true.
In this regard, I would like to cite the statements of Vyacheslav Nikolaevich Zhukov: "When they talk about truth, one always wants to emphasize its objective, independent character...The thesis about the objectivity of truth should not be understood literally as an absolutely accurate, comprehensive and complete cast of reality.The objectivity of truth is a certain assumption, a convention accepted in the scientific world that requires numerous reservations.The facts of reality, passing through the countless labyrinths of human consciousness, often take on a form that is far from the original.Our ideas about things are always a mental image, a concept, and not the thing itself; there is a larger or smaller distance between the idea of things and the things themselves" [53].