Social Media and Voter Mobilization during Nigeria’s 2023 General Elections: An Analysis of Political Campaign Strategies and Citizen Engagement
Main Article Content
Abstract
The 2023 Nigerian General Elections marked a significant turning point in the country’s democratic process, with social media emerging as a central platform for political communication, voter mobilization, and citizen engagement. This paper examines the role of social media in shaping electoral participation during the elections, focusing on how political actors employed digital platforms to disseminate campaign messages, influence public opinion, and mobilize voters. The study further explores the extent to which citizens utilized social media to access political information, participate in political discussions, and engage with electoral processes. The research adopted a qualitative approach based on secondary data analysis. Data were gathered from scholarly journal articles, election observation reports, policy documents, publications from electoral and civil society organizations, media reports, and existing studies on digital political communication and electoral participation in Nigeria. The paper contends that while social media enhanced political awareness and participation, it simultaneously created opportunities for the spread of misinformation, disinformation, political polarization, and digital manipulation that influenced electoral discourse. The paper discovered that social media played a critical role in increasing voter engagement, expanding political participation among previously marginalized groups, and strengthening issue-based political conversations during the election period. However, the effectiveness of these platforms in promoting democratic participation was constrained by challenges relating to information credibility, digital inequalities, and the proliferation of false narratives. The study concludes that social media has become an indispensable instrument of electoral mobilization and democratic engagement in Nigeria.
Article Details
How to Cite
Joy, J. I., Mohammed Jibril Nasir, & Abdullahi Aliyu Maiwada. (2026). Social Media and Voter Mobilization during Nigeria’s 2023 General Elections: An Analysis of Political Campaign Strategies and Citizen Engagement. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 6(2), 150-165. Retrieved from https://www.biarjournal.com/index.php/polit/article/view/1536
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References
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Adebayo, O., & Kaufhold, K. (2023). Power to the people: Social media as a catalyst for political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies, 12(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJICST.317111
Ademosu, I., Aondover, E. M., Osadolor, B., & Abraham, B. (2025). Divisive politics: analysis of ethnic rhetoric and hate speech in the 2023 Lagos Governorship elections. Frontiers in Political Science, 7, 1663797.
Anikwe, K. (2023). Twitter sentiment analysis of Lagos State 2023 gubernatorial election using BERT. ResearchGate.
Aondover, E. M. (2024). Media Outlook of Hate Speech in the 2015 and 2019 General Elections in Nigeria. Rotura–Revista de Comunicação, Cultura e Artes, 4(1), 50-63.
Aondover, E. M., & Ademosu, I. (2025). E-learning practices of journalism education in Nigerian higher education institutions: Conceptual context and challenges. In Media and communication systems for sustainability in Nigeria (pp. 451-464). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, E. M., & Obasi, M. (2025). Identity and the Narratives of Conflict in Nigerian Media. In Media, Conflicts and the National Security Question: Communicating (In) security in Nigeria, West Africa and the Sahel (pp. 315-334). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, E. M., Ademosu, I., & Acheme, R. (2026). Perception of Hate Speech in the 2023 Presidential Political Campaigns on Voter Behaviour in Nigeria. Frontiers in Political Science, 8, 1750183.
Aondover, E. M., Daushe, A. U., Ogunbola, O., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Media coverage of internally displaced persons in two selected newspapers in Nigeria. Journal of Migration and Health, 11, 100301.
Aondover, E. M., Ogri, E., Obukoadata, P., & Ogri, O. (2025). Nigerian Media Practitioners, Editorial Freedom and Owners’ Influence: The Continued Triad and Navigation of Conflicting Interests. Editorial Freedom and Owners’ Influence: The Continued Triad and Navigation of Conflicting Interests.
Aondover, E. M., Yar’Adua, S. M., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Influence of Digital Images on the Propagation of Fake News on Twitter in Russia and Ukraine Crisis. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 59-74.
Aondover, E. M., Yar’Adua, S. M., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Influence of Digital Images on the Propagation of Fake News on Twitter in Russia and Ukraine Crisis. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 59-74.
Aondover, E. M., Yusuf, N. T., & Muhammad, M. (2025). Psychological and Physical Safety of Foreign Journalists Covering Boko Haram Conflict in Borno State, Nigeria. In Navigating Trauma in African Journalism, Volume 1: Scholarly Foundations and Secondary Trauma (pp. 209-228). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, P. O., Aondover, E. M., & Babele, A. M. (2022). Two nations, same technology, different outcomes: Analysis of technology application in Africa and America. Journal of Educational Research and Review, 1(1), 001-008.
Asemah, E. S., Nwammuo, A. N., & Nkwam-Uwaoma, O. A. (2022). Theories and models of communication. Jos University Press.
Ayika, T. (2024). The role of social media in voter’s mobilization in Nigeria’s 2023 general elections. Ayika – Journal of Environment and Politics in Africa, 6(1), 48–67.
Bakir, V., & McStay, A. (2018). Fake news and the economy of emotions: Problems, causes, solutions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645
Bassey, A. U., Kente, J. S., & Akpede, K. S. (2024). Assessment of digital campaign strategies adopted by presidential candidates in the 2023 Nigerian elections. African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 7(2), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.52589/AJSSHR-DGT88AJ9
Crawford, K., Miltner, K. M., & Gray, M. (2016). Social media and cybersecurity: Current trends and challenges. Journal of Information Security, 5(4), 201–215.
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. [Cited in Adeniran et al., 2019]
Ferrara, E., Varol, O., Davis, C. A., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2016). The rise of social bots. Communications of the ACM, 59(7), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1145/2818717
Fourchard, L., & Sikiru, A. K. (2023). The 2023 cashless election in Nigeria: The politics of withdrawing money. African Affairs, 122(490), adad019. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adad019
Fourneris, S. (2022). The evolution of electoral campaigning in the digital age. European Journal of Political Communication, 14(4), 311–328.
Gerber, A. S., & Strachan, R. J. (2024). Social media influence in the 2024 South African elections. African Journal of Political Science, 25(2), 77–94.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Harvard University Press. [Cited in Asemah, 2022]
Guanah, J. S., Bebenimibo, P., & Aondover, E. M. (2026). Fuel Communications. Fuel, 27(10015), 7.
Howard, P. N., Kollanyi, B., & Bradshaw, S. (2018). Social media manipulation and foreign interference. Global Media Journal, 20(1), 15–30.
Ibe, M. (2019). The rise and influence of social media in political participation in Nigeria during the 2019 general elections: A study of Sabon Gari local government area, Kaduna State.
Igwebuike, E. E., & Chimuanya, L. (2020). Legitimating falsehood in social media: A discourse analysis of political fake news. Discourse & Communication, 15(1), 42–58.
Joseph, O. O., & Okunade, J. K. (2026). Role of Sit-Tight Syndrome in Undermining Democratic Institutions in Nigeria: A Governance Perspective. Matondang Journal, 5(2), 132-147.
Kellner, D., & Bohman, S. (2013). New media and social movements. Journal of Political Sociology, 10(15), 20–30.
Kim, J., & Lee, H. (2019). The smartphone addiction scale: Development and validation of a short version for adolescents. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0216478. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216478
Kohnert, D. (2023). The aftermath of Nigeria’s 2023 presidential elections and its impact on the sub-region. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4426065
Kolade, O., Obembe, D., & Olufemi, J. (2023). Digital disruption of Africa’s electoral process: Insights from Nigeria’s 2023 presidential election. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4481059
Lewis, S. C. (2015). Reciprocity as a key concept for social media and society. Social Media + Society, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115580339
Lilleker, D. G., & Koc-Michalska, K. (2012). Online political communication strategies: MEPs, e-representation and self-representation. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 10(2), 190–207.
Maradun, L. U., & Aondover, E. M. (2025). Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice Towards COVID-19 Prevention Messages on Media in North-West, Nigeria. African Journalism Studies, 1-19.
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
Michael, E. J., & Kayode, O. J. (2014). Nigeria’s communication policy and news determination. Journal of Law, Policy, and Globalization, 23, 8-17.
Michael, O. P. (2023). Mobilizing Nigerian youths for active political engagements through social media: Examining the veracity of Facebook and WhatsApp in the 2019 general elections. Ianna Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(1), 16–27.
Mohammed, I., & Aondover, E. M. (2025). News coverage of humanitarian crisis: a study of banditry in Northwest Nigeria. In Handbook on Humanitarian Crises (pp. 209-217). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mojaye, E. M., & Aondover, E. M. (2022). Theoretical perspectives in world information systems: A propositional appraisal of new media-communication imperatives. Journal of Communication and Media Research, 14(1), 100–106.
Moran, D. (2023). What is the role of social media in election campaigns? RecurPost.
Msughter, A. E. (2023). Nigerian press coverage of hate speeches in the Daily Trust, The Nation and The Guardian Newspapers. In The Psychology of Trust. IntechOpen.
Msughter, A. E., & Phillips, D. (2020). Media framing of COVID-19 pandemic: A study of Daily Trust and Vanguard Newspapers in Nigeria. International Journal of Health, Safety and Environment, 6(5), 588–596.
Nabiebu, M. (2022). Nigeria’s legal regulatory framework for ensuring a credible 2023 election. International Journal of Law and Society, 1(3), 221–231.
Nwafor, O. A., Ugwuanyi, J. C., & Amatu, C. U. (2023). Social media and political participation in the midst of COVID-19 pandemic: An empirical review of Anambra 2021 gubernatorial election. Journal of Emerging Technologies, 3(1), 1–12.
Nwoke, C. C., Oyiga, S. C., & Ihuoma, C. H. (2021). Social media, civic vitality and Nigeria’s 2019 general elections. Covenant Journal of Communication, 8(1), 1–25.
Obasi, M. C., & Msughter, A. E. (2023). Assessment of media coverage of environmental hazards in mining communities in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Environmental Challenges, 13, 100758.
Ogbu, S. U. (2023). Optimising social media and marketing communication strategies for voter education: A way forward for INEC in Nigeria. In Public Sector Marketing Communications, Volume II (pp. 155–184). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23955-6_8
Okonkwo, C. J. (2020). Media and democracy in Nigeria: An appraisal of new media influence. Journal of African Communication Research, 9(2), 54–67.
Okunade, J. K. (2025). Exploring the impact of effective internal communication strategies on employee morale, productivity, and organizational culture. Lakhomi Journal Scientific Journal of Culture, 6(1), 1-11.
Okunade, J. K. (2025). Media Coverage of Covid-19 and Readers’ Perception of Credibility of Fake News. Britain International of Humanities and Social Sciences (BIoHS) Journal, 7(2), 93-112.
Okunade, J. K., Onyejelem, T. E., Ukpe, E., & Ridwan, M. (2024). Assessment on the Role of the Nigerian Media in Educating the Children and Adolescent on the Value of Sex Education. Konfrontasi: Jurnal Kultural, Ekonomi dan Perubahan Sosial, 11(2), 93-105.
Olowokere, A., & Audu-Bako, S. (2019). Social media usage and impacts on the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. International Affairs and Global Strategy, 74, 16–23.
Oni, S., Chidozie, F. C., & Agbude, A. G. (2013). Electoral politics in the fourth republic of Nigeria’s democratic governance. Developing Country Studies, 3(12), 48–56.
Onyejelem, T. E., & Aondover, E. M. (2024). Digital Generative Multimedia Tool Theory (DGMTT): A theoretical postulation in the era of artificial intelligence. Advances in Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, 5(2), 1–9.
Sanusi, B. O., Omowale, A., & Kayode, O. J. (2014). Adapting social media for formal learning in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (OMAN Chapter), 3(9), 22.
Tech Policy Press. (2022). The role of social media in the French 2022 presidential election.
Udanor, C., Aneke, S., & Ogbuokiri, B. O. (2016). Determining social media impact on the politics of developing countries using social network analytics. Program, 50(4), 481–507. https://doi.org/10.1108/PROG-04-2016-0030
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Vitalis, P. O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Okuneye, A. P. (2023). Understanding advertising in the era of social media. Information System and Smart City, 3(1), 502-502.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Garba, S. (2023). Media and national development in democratic societies. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 3(3), 105–115.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Namadi, H. M., & Msughter, A. E. (2021). An appraisal of political economy of new media in Nigerian context. International Journal of English Literature and Culture, 9(4), 109–117.
Adebayo, O., & Kaufhold, K. (2023). Power to the people: Social media as a catalyst for political participation in Nigeria. International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies, 12(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJICST.317111
Ademosu, I., Aondover, E. M., Osadolor, B., & Abraham, B. (2025). Divisive politics: analysis of ethnic rhetoric and hate speech in the 2023 Lagos Governorship elections. Frontiers in Political Science, 7, 1663797.
Anikwe, K. (2023). Twitter sentiment analysis of Lagos State 2023 gubernatorial election using BERT. ResearchGate.
Aondover, E. M. (2024). Media Outlook of Hate Speech in the 2015 and 2019 General Elections in Nigeria. Rotura–Revista de Comunicação, Cultura e Artes, 4(1), 50-63.
Aondover, E. M., & Ademosu, I. (2025). E-learning practices of journalism education in Nigerian higher education institutions: Conceptual context and challenges. In Media and communication systems for sustainability in Nigeria (pp. 451-464). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, E. M., & Obasi, M. (2025). Identity and the Narratives of Conflict in Nigerian Media. In Media, Conflicts and the National Security Question: Communicating (In) security in Nigeria, West Africa and the Sahel (pp. 315-334). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, E. M., Ademosu, I., & Acheme, R. (2026). Perception of Hate Speech in the 2023 Presidential Political Campaigns on Voter Behaviour in Nigeria. Frontiers in Political Science, 8, 1750183.
Aondover, E. M., Daushe, A. U., Ogunbola, O., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Media coverage of internally displaced persons in two selected newspapers in Nigeria. Journal of Migration and Health, 11, 100301.
Aondover, E. M., Ogri, E., Obukoadata, P., & Ogri, O. (2025). Nigerian Media Practitioners, Editorial Freedom and Owners’ Influence: The Continued Triad and Navigation of Conflicting Interests. Editorial Freedom and Owners’ Influence: The Continued Triad and Navigation of Conflicting Interests.
Aondover, E. M., Yar’Adua, S. M., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Influence of Digital Images on the Propagation of Fake News on Twitter in Russia and Ukraine Crisis. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 59-74.
Aondover, E. M., Yar’Adua, S. M., & Aondover, P. O. (2025). Influence of Digital Images on the Propagation of Fake News on Twitter in Russia and Ukraine Crisis. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 59-74.
Aondover, E. M., Yusuf, N. T., & Muhammad, M. (2025). Psychological and Physical Safety of Foreign Journalists Covering Boko Haram Conflict in Borno State, Nigeria. In Navigating Trauma in African Journalism, Volume 1: Scholarly Foundations and Secondary Trauma (pp. 209-228). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
Aondover, P. O., Aondover, E. M., & Babele, A. M. (2022). Two nations, same technology, different outcomes: Analysis of technology application in Africa and America. Journal of Educational Research and Review, 1(1), 001-008.
Asemah, E. S., Nwammuo, A. N., & Nkwam-Uwaoma, O. A. (2022). Theories and models of communication. Jos University Press.
Ayika, T. (2024). The role of social media in voter’s mobilization in Nigeria’s 2023 general elections. Ayika – Journal of Environment and Politics in Africa, 6(1), 48–67.
Bakir, V., & McStay, A. (2018). Fake news and the economy of emotions: Problems, causes, solutions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645
Bassey, A. U., Kente, J. S., & Akpede, K. S. (2024). Assessment of digital campaign strategies adopted by presidential candidates in the 2023 Nigerian elections. African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 7(2), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.52589/AJSSHR-DGT88AJ9
Crawford, K., Miltner, K. M., & Gray, M. (2016). Social media and cybersecurity: Current trends and challenges. Journal of Information Security, 5(4), 201–215.
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. [Cited in Adeniran et al., 2019]
Ferrara, E., Varol, O., Davis, C. A., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2016). The rise of social bots. Communications of the ACM, 59(7), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1145/2818717
Fourchard, L., & Sikiru, A. K. (2023). The 2023 cashless election in Nigeria: The politics of withdrawing money. African Affairs, 122(490), adad019. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adad019
Fourneris, S. (2022). The evolution of electoral campaigning in the digital age. European Journal of Political Communication, 14(4), 311–328.
Gerber, A. S., & Strachan, R. J. (2024). Social media influence in the 2024 South African elections. African Journal of Political Science, 25(2), 77–94.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Harvard University Press. [Cited in Asemah, 2022]
Guanah, J. S., Bebenimibo, P., & Aondover, E. M. (2026). Fuel Communications. Fuel, 27(10015), 7.
Howard, P. N., Kollanyi, B., & Bradshaw, S. (2018). Social media manipulation and foreign interference. Global Media Journal, 20(1), 15–30.
Ibe, M. (2019). The rise and influence of social media in political participation in Nigeria during the 2019 general elections: A study of Sabon Gari local government area, Kaduna State.
Igwebuike, E. E., & Chimuanya, L. (2020). Legitimating falsehood in social media: A discourse analysis of political fake news. Discourse & Communication, 15(1), 42–58.
Joseph, O. O., & Okunade, J. K. (2026). Role of Sit-Tight Syndrome in Undermining Democratic Institutions in Nigeria: A Governance Perspective. Matondang Journal, 5(2), 132-147.
Kellner, D., & Bohman, S. (2013). New media and social movements. Journal of Political Sociology, 10(15), 20–30.
Kim, J., & Lee, H. (2019). The smartphone addiction scale: Development and validation of a short version for adolescents. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0216478. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216478
Kohnert, D. (2023). The aftermath of Nigeria’s 2023 presidential elections and its impact on the sub-region. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4426065
Kolade, O., Obembe, D., & Olufemi, J. (2023). Digital disruption of Africa’s electoral process: Insights from Nigeria’s 2023 presidential election. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4481059
Lewis, S. C. (2015). Reciprocity as a key concept for social media and society. Social Media + Society, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115580339
Lilleker, D. G., & Koc-Michalska, K. (2012). Online political communication strategies: MEPs, e-representation and self-representation. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 10(2), 190–207.
Maradun, L. U., & Aondover, E. M. (2025). Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice Towards COVID-19 Prevention Messages on Media in North-West, Nigeria. African Journalism Studies, 1-19.
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
Michael, E. J., & Kayode, O. J. (2014). Nigeria’s communication policy and news determination. Journal of Law, Policy, and Globalization, 23, 8-17.
Michael, O. P. (2023). Mobilizing Nigerian youths for active political engagements through social media: Examining the veracity of Facebook and WhatsApp in the 2019 general elections. Ianna Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(1), 16–27.
Mohammed, I., & Aondover, E. M. (2025). News coverage of humanitarian crisis: a study of banditry in Northwest Nigeria. In Handbook on Humanitarian Crises (pp. 209-217). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mojaye, E. M., & Aondover, E. M. (2022). Theoretical perspectives in world information systems: A propositional appraisal of new media-communication imperatives. Journal of Communication and Media Research, 14(1), 100–106.
Moran, D. (2023). What is the role of social media in election campaigns? RecurPost.
Msughter, A. E. (2023). Nigerian press coverage of hate speeches in the Daily Trust, The Nation and The Guardian Newspapers. In The Psychology of Trust. IntechOpen.
Msughter, A. E., & Phillips, D. (2020). Media framing of COVID-19 pandemic: A study of Daily Trust and Vanguard Newspapers in Nigeria. International Journal of Health, Safety and Environment, 6(5), 588–596.
Nabiebu, M. (2022). Nigeria’s legal regulatory framework for ensuring a credible 2023 election. International Journal of Law and Society, 1(3), 221–231.
Nwafor, O. A., Ugwuanyi, J. C., & Amatu, C. U. (2023). Social media and political participation in the midst of COVID-19 pandemic: An empirical review of Anambra 2021 gubernatorial election. Journal of Emerging Technologies, 3(1), 1–12.
Nwoke, C. C., Oyiga, S. C., & Ihuoma, C. H. (2021). Social media, civic vitality and Nigeria’s 2019 general elections. Covenant Journal of Communication, 8(1), 1–25.
Obasi, M. C., & Msughter, A. E. (2023). Assessment of media coverage of environmental hazards in mining communities in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Environmental Challenges, 13, 100758.
Ogbu, S. U. (2023). Optimising social media and marketing communication strategies for voter education: A way forward for INEC in Nigeria. In Public Sector Marketing Communications, Volume II (pp. 155–184). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23955-6_8
Okonkwo, C. J. (2020). Media and democracy in Nigeria: An appraisal of new media influence. Journal of African Communication Research, 9(2), 54–67.
Okunade, J. K. (2025). Exploring the impact of effective internal communication strategies on employee morale, productivity, and organizational culture. Lakhomi Journal Scientific Journal of Culture, 6(1), 1-11.
Okunade, J. K. (2025). Media Coverage of Covid-19 and Readers’ Perception of Credibility of Fake News. Britain International of Humanities and Social Sciences (BIoHS) Journal, 7(2), 93-112.
Okunade, J. K., Onyejelem, T. E., Ukpe, E., & Ridwan, M. (2024). Assessment on the Role of the Nigerian Media in Educating the Children and Adolescent on the Value of Sex Education. Konfrontasi: Jurnal Kultural, Ekonomi dan Perubahan Sosial, 11(2), 93-105.
Olowokere, A., & Audu-Bako, S. (2019). Social media usage and impacts on the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. International Affairs and Global Strategy, 74, 16–23.
Oni, S., Chidozie, F. C., & Agbude, A. G. (2013). Electoral politics in the fourth republic of Nigeria’s democratic governance. Developing Country Studies, 3(12), 48–56.
Onyejelem, T. E., & Aondover, E. M. (2024). Digital Generative Multimedia Tool Theory (DGMTT): A theoretical postulation in the era of artificial intelligence. Advances in Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, 5(2), 1–9.
Sanusi, B. O., Omowale, A., & Kayode, O. J. (2014). Adapting social media for formal learning in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (OMAN Chapter), 3(9), 22.
Tech Policy Press. (2022). The role of social media in the French 2022 presidential election.
Udanor, C., Aneke, S., & Ogbuokiri, B. O. (2016). Determining social media impact on the politics of developing countries using social network analytics. Program, 50(4), 481–507. https://doi.org/10.1108/PROG-04-2016-0030
Vitalis, P. O., Aondover, E. M., Ogunbola, O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Ridwan, M. (2025). Accessing Digital Divide and Implications in Nigeria: The Media Dimension. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 8(1), 1-12.
Vitalis, P. O., Onyejelem, T. E., & Okuneye, A. P. (2023). Understanding advertising in the era of social media. Information System and Smart City, 3(1), 502-502.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Msughter, A. E., & Garba, S. (2023). Media and national development in democratic societies. Polit Journal Scientific Journal of Politics, 3(3), 105–115.
Yar’Adua, S. M., Namadi, H. M., & Msughter, A. E. (2021). An appraisal of political economy of new media in Nigerian context. International Journal of English Literature and Culture, 9(4), 109–117.